Welcome to B.M.C. Durfee High School of Fall River

Strand 1: Earth and Space Science

In earth and space science, students study the origin, structure, and physical phenomena of the earth and the universe. Earth and space science studies include concepts in geology, meteorology, oceanography, and astronomy. These studies integrate previously or simultaneously gained understandings in physical and life science with the physical environment. Through a study of earth and space, students learn about the nature and interactions of oceans and the atmosphere, earth processes including plate tectonics, changes in topography over time, and the place of the earth in the universe.

In grades PreK-2, students are naturally interested in everything around them. This curiosity leads them to observe, collect, and record information about the earth and about objects visible in the sky. Teachers should encourage their students’ observations without feeling compelled to offer the precise scientific reasons for these phenomena. Young children bring these experiences to school and learn to extend and focus their explorations. In the process, they learn to work with tools like magnifiers and simple measuring devices. The learning standards at this level fall under the topics of Earth’s Materials, Weather, Sun as a Source of Heat and Light, and Periodic Phenomena.

In grades 3-5, students explore properties of earth materials and how they change. They conduct tests to classify materials by observed properties, make and record sequential observations, note patterns and variations, and look for factors that cause change. Students observe weather phenomena and describe them quantitatively using simple tools. They study the water cycle, including the forms and locations of water. The focus is on having students generate questions, investigate possible solutions, make predictions, and evaluate their conclusions. Learning standards fall under the topics of Rocks and Their Properties, Soil, Weather, Water Cycle, Earth’s History, and The Earth in the Solar System.

In grades 6-8, students gain sophistication and experience in using models, satellite images, and maps to represent processes and features. In the early part of this grade span, students continue to investigate geological materials’ properties and methods of origin. As their experiments become more quantitative, students should begin to recognize that many of the earth’s natural events occur because of processes such as heat transfer.

At this level, students should recognize the interacting nature of the earth’s four major systems: the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. They should begin to see how the earth’s movement affects both the living and nonliving components of the world. Attention shifts from the properties of particular objects toward an understanding of the place of the earth in the solar system and changes in the earth’s composition and topography over time. Middle school students grapple with the importance of and methods of obtaining direct and indirect evidence to support current thinking. They recognize that new technologies and observations change our explanations about how things in the natural world behave. Learning standards fall under the topics of Mapping the Earth, Earth’s Structure, Heat Transfer in the Earth System, Earth’s History, and The Earth in the Solar System.

The unifying theme of 9th and 10th grade earth and space science is the interaction of the Earth’s various spheres and human activities. It falls into the following categories: Matter and Energy in the Earth System, Earth’s Sources of Energy, Earth’s Processes and Cycles, and The Origin and Evolution of the Universe. Students continue their studies to include the universe. As they review geological, meteorological, oceanographic, and astronomical data, they learn about direct and indirect evidence and consider how these might be used to test competing theories about the origin of stars and planets, including our own solar system. Through increasingly sophisticated investigations and measurements, students also learn about various geological processes, including plate tectonics, wind formation, the flow of water through the local watershed, and changes in the earth over time.

Earth and Space Science

Please note: The technology/engineering standards for grades PreK-5 are on page 55.

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences Suggested Extensions to Learning in Technology/Engineering
Grades PreK-2 Earth and Space Science
Earth’s Materials 1. Recognize that water, rocks, soil, and living organisms are found on the earth’s surface. • Walk around the playground observing and discussing where water, rocks, soil, and living organisms are found.
• Identify characteristics shared by naturally occurring rocks and manmade concrete. (T/E 1.1)
2. Understand that air is a mixture of gases that is all around us and that wind is moving air. • Use a hand pump to inflate a basketball. Observe and discuss how and why the basketball gets larger as you add more air. (Air takes up space.)
• Design a kite and identify which materials would be used for its construction. Classify them as natural or manmade materials. Build the kite and fly it outside. (T/E 1.1, 1.2) Weather 3. Describe the weather changes from day to day and over the seasons.
• Keep a class weather chart indicating daily temperature, how windy it is, which direction wind is blowing (use visual clues), and kind of precipitation, if any. • Design and build a tool that could be used to show wind direction (wind sock). (T/E 1.3)
The Sun as a Source of Light and Heat 4. Recognize that the sun supplies heat and light to the earth and is necessary for life.
• Record the time of day when the sun shines in different school locations and note patterns.
• Design a shade for the window to keep the room cool in the summer or to keep the sun out for television viewing. (T/E 1.1, 1.3)
Periodic Phenomena 5. Identify some events around us that have repeating patterns, including the seasons of the year, day and night. • Make a list of what you see outdoors and in the sky during the day. Make another list of things you see outdoors and in the sky at night. Discuss the differences between the day and night lists. • Use a thermometer to record the temperature from morning to noon over several weeks and discuss any patterns that emerge. (T/E 2.1)

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences Suggested Extensions to Learning in Technology/Engineering
Grades 3-5 Earth and Space Science
Rocks and Their Properties 1. Give a simple explanation of what a mineral is and some examples, e.g., quartz, mica. • Observe and describe the characteristics of ore minerals such as magnetite and hematite (two sources of iron).
• Design a flowchart to demonstrate how silica from sand is used to make glass. (T/E 2.2) 2. Identify the physical properties of minerals (hardness, color, luster, cleavage, and streak), and explain how minerals can be tested for these different physical properties. • Acquire a collection of minerals that includes (a) duplicates of the same mineral, somewhat different in appearance (size, shape, exact color) and (b) samples of minerals that look similar but are actually different. Examine minerals using a hand lens. Look for and record similarities and differences such as heaviness, color, texture, crystal shapes, luster, surface patterns, etc. Sort as accurately as possible. Report total number of different minerals present, and how many duplicates, if any, of each type.
• Use simple tools to test for hardness, e.g., Moh’s Scale of Hardness. (T/E 1.1) 3. Identify the three categories of rocks (metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary) based on how they are formed, and explain the natural and physical processes that create these rocks. • Examine rocks collected from the schoolyard or a field trip location, or brought in from home. Sort rocks into igneous, metamorphic, or sedimentary based on their physical properties. • Discuss the use of rocks in construction based on their physical properties. Test the hardness of various types of rocks used in construction. (T/E 1.1)
Soil 4. Explain and give examples of the ways in which soil is formed (the weathering of rock by water and wind and from the decomposition of plant and animal remains). • Observe sand with a hand lens. Note how particles resemble minerals. Observe topsoil with a hand lens. Look for fragments of organisms. Note differences in color, texture, odor, and clumping due to organic components vs. pure sand. Mix topsoil and sand together in various proportions to represent samples of types of soils. • Design and construct a composting bin being sure to keep design considerations in mind, e.g., aeration, resistance to rot, etc. (T/E 1.2, 2.1-2.3)

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences Suggested Extensions to Learning in Technology/Engineering
Grades 3-5 Earth and Space Science
Soil (cont.) 5. Recognize and discuss the different properties of soil, including color, texture (size of particles), the ability to retain water, and the ability to support the growth of plants. • Design an experiment to find out if different soil samples retain different amounts of water. Explain how the properties of the particles affect the large-scale properties of the soil like water retention and speed of water flow. Discuss how a soil’s water retention affects the animals and plants that live in it.
• Use sieves of different mesh sizes to separate coarse and fine materials in a soil sample. Approximate the ratio of fine to coarse material in the sample. (T/E 1.1, 1.2)
Weather 6. Explain how air temperature, moisture, wind speed and direction, and precipitation make up the weather in a particular place and time. • Use a collection of classical (not digital) weather instruments that clearly show the physical principle that makes them work. Collection includes thermometer, barometer, rain gauge, hygrometer, and anemometer. Note: A “homemade” instrument is often too inaccurate and unreliable to be a good weather teaching aid by itself. However, when used in combination with a working instrument of similar simple design, it can help students grasp both an important physical concept and its relevance to weather. • Using measuring tools or graph paper, sketch a scale drawing of the front view of an object used to measure weather. (T/E 2.3)
• Design and construct a variety of simple instruments that could be used to measure weather. Discuss how their design suits their purpose. (T/E 2.1-2.4)
• Explain how tools of technology such as a hammer, screwdriver, pliers, tape measure, screws, nails, and other mechanical fasteners can be used to make or build weather instruments. (T/E 1.1)
7. Distinguish among the various forms of precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, and hail), making connections to the weather in a particular place and time. • Measure various forms of precipitation. Bring a measured sample of snow into the classroom, allow it to melt, and compare the amount of water that results with the original measurement. • Construct various weather station instruments (e.g., wind gauge, barometer, anemometer), record data from them, and make conclusions. (T/E 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3)

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences Suggested Extensions to Learning in Technology/Engineering
Grades 3-5 Earth and Space Science
Weather (cont.) 8. Describe how global patterns such as the jet stream and water currents influence local weather in measurable terms such as temperature, wind direction and speed, and precipitation.
• An activity to illustrate convection (essential in transferring both heat and moisture around the world; drives both wind circulation and ocean currents.) Freeze a dark solution of food coloring and water in an ice cube tray. Float a colored ice cube on water in a transparent container. Discuss what happens, and how it is connected to convection in both liquid and gas.
• To make a model of the jet stream, fill a jar halfway with warm water. Sprinkle some pepper into the water to represent nutrients on the ocean floor. Put a colored ice cube into the jar. Students should draw and describe their observations. (T/E 2.2) 9. Differentiate between weather and climate.
• Collect daily temperature and precipitation data, preferably by observation, at your school. At the same time use the internet or a newspaper to collect the same data for a nearby city and a city on the west coast of the U.S. After three months, take various averages of the daily data for the three locations. Graph the data. Discuss how the long-term daily weather averages begin to describe each climate. • Discuss tools used to measure everyday weather compared with tools used in determining climate. (T/E 1.2)
• Use a thermometer and barometer to compare conditions indoors and outdoors. (T/E 2.4)
The Water Cycle 10. Describe how water on earth cycles in different forms and in different locations, including underground and in the atmosphere.
• Draw a diagram of the water cycle. Label evaporation, condensation, and precipitation. Explain what happens during each process.
• Design and build a terrarium to demonstrate the water cycle. (T/E 1.2, 2.1-2.3) 11. Give examples of how the cycling of water, both in and out of the atmosphere, has an effect on climate.

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences Suggested Extensions to Learning in Technology/Engineering
Grades 3-5 Earth and Space Science
Earth’s History 12. Give examples of how the surface of the earth changes due to slow processes such as erosion and weathering, and rapid processes such as landslides, volcanic eruptions, and earthquakes.
• To demonstrate the influence of vegetation on erosion, put soil in two shallow rectangular baking pans. Cover one pan with a layer of sod. Elevate one end of each pan. Compare and discuss the erosion caused by equal amounts of water running down each slope. • Identify one manmade attribute that slows the erosion process (e.g., hay bales at a construction site, silt fence protecting sand dunes) and one attribute that accelerates it (e.g., paving a parking lot, cutting trees). Relate these to natural systems. (T/E 2.1, 2.4)
The Earth in the Solar System 13. Recognize that the earth is part of a system called the “solar system” that includes the sun (a star), planets, and many moons. The earth is the third planet from the sun in our solar system. • Create a proportional model of the solar system starting on the school playground and extending as far as possible. Demonstrate the size of objects (use a pea as the smallest planet, and different size balls for the rest) and the distance between them.
14. Recognize that the earth revolves around (orbits) the sun in a year’s time and that the earth rotates on its axis once approximately every 24 hours. Make connections between the rotation of the earth and day/night, and the apparent movement of the sun, moon, and stars across the sky. • Observe and discuss the changes in length and direction of shadows during the course of a day. • Design and build a sundial and use it to determine the time of day. Explore how accurate it is over time. Determine the conditions under which the sundial does and does not work. (T/E 1.1, 1.2, 2.3) 15. Describe the changes that occur in the observable shape of the moon over the course of a month. • Observe the sky every night for 30 days. Record every night the shape of the moon and its relative location across the sky (record the date of the month and the time of observation each time as well).
• Design and create a calendar that illustrates the phases of the moon. (T/E 2.2, 2.3)

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and
Learning Experiences
Grades 6-8 Earth and Space Science
Mapping the Earth 1. Recognize, interpret, and be able to create models of the earth’s common physical features in various mapping representations, including contour maps.
• Choose a small area of unpaved, sloping ground in the schoolyard or a park. Create a scale contour map of the area. Include true north and magnetic north. Earth’s Structure 2. Describe the layers of the solid earth, including the lithosphere, the hot convecting mantle, and the dense metallic core. • Use a Styrofoam ball and paint to construct a cross-section model of the earth.
Heat Transfer in the Earth System 3. Differentiate among radiation, conduction, and convection, the three mechanisms by which heat is transferred through the earth’s system. • Investigate the movement of a drop of food coloring placed in water, with and without a heat source, and in different positions relative to a heat source.

4. Explain the relationship among the energy provided by the sun, the global patterns of atmospheric movement, and the temperature differences among water, land, and atmosphere.
• Note the relationship between global wind patterns and ocean current patterns.
Earth’s History 5. Describe how the movement of the earth’s crustal plates causes both slow changes in the earth’s surface (e.g., formation of mountains and ocean basins) and rapid ones (e.g., volcanic eruptions and earthquakes).
• Use the Pangaea map to understand plate movement.
• Research and map the location of volcanic or earthquake activity. Relate these locations to the locations of the earth’s tectonic plates.

6. Describe and give examples of ways in which the earth’s surface is built up and torn down by natural processes, including deposition of sediments, rock formation, erosion, and weathering.
• Observe signs of erosion and weathering in local habitats and note seasonal changes.
• Visit local sites following storm events and observe changes. 7. Explain and give examples of how physical evidence, such as fossils and surface features of glaciation, supports theories that the earth has evolved over geologic time.
• Make a timeline showing index fossils. Discuss which of these fossils are actually found in New England. Discuss why some may be missing from local rocks. The Earth in the Solar System 8. Recognize that gravity is a force that pulls all things on and near the earth toward the center of the earth. Gravity plays a major role in the formation of the planets, stars, and solar system and in determining their motions.
• Observe the speed at which objects of various mass drop from a common height. Use a chronometer to accurately measure time and plot the data as mass versus time necessary to reach the ground. 9. Describe lunar and solar eclipses, the observed moon phases, and tides. Relate them to the relative positions of the earth, moon, and sun.
• Use globes and a light source to explain why high tides on two successive mornings are typically about 25 hours (rather than 24) apart.

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and
Learning Experiences
Grades 6-8 Earth and Space Science
10. Compare and contrast properties and conditions of objects in the solar system (i.e., sun, planets, and moons) to those on Earth (i.e., gravitational force, distance from the sun, speed, movement, temperature, and atmospheric conditions).
• Using light objects such as balloons or basketballs, and heavy objects such as rocks, make models that show how heavy a 1 kg pumpkin would seem to you on the surface of the moon, Mars, Earth, and Jupiter. 11. Explain how the tilt of the earth and its revolution around the sun result in an uneven heating of the earth, which in turn causes the seasons.

12. Recognize that the universe contains many billions of galaxies, and that each galaxy contains many billions of stars. • Count the number of stars you can see with your naked eye in a small group such as the Pleiades. Repeat with low power binoculars. Repeat again with telescope or powerful binoculars. Research the number of stars present. Discuss the meaning of your answers.

WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE IN THE CLASSROOM

Weather Stations
Adapted from the National Science Education Standards, pp. 131-133

Earth and Space Science, Grades 3-5

Soon after school opened in the fall, Mr. Shahan introduced the concept of a weather station. After a discussion of students’ experiences with and ideas about weather, Mr. Shahan asked the class what kinds of information would be important to collect and how they might go about collecting it. The children quickly identified the need to record whether the day was sunny or cloudy, the presence of precipitation, and the temperature. Mr. Shahan asked some questions and the list became more complicated: What kinds of clouds were evident? How much precipitation accumulated? How did the temperature change day to day and over the course of a given day? What was the wind speed and direction? One student said that he heard that there was a high-pressure front moving in. “What is a front,” he asked, “and is it important?” At the end of the discussion, someone mentioned humidity and recalled the muggy heat wave of the summer.

The class spent time discussing and planning how they were going to measure the weather conditions, what tools they would need, and how they would collect and analyze the data. Students worked in groups, and each group focused on one aspect of weather. Twice each week, the groups shared their work with the whole class.

Several weeks later, the weather station that the students had created was in operation, and they recorded data twice a day. They used a class-made anemometer and wind vane to observe wind direction and speed, a commercial thermometer to observe temperature, and a rain gauge to observe precipitation. The class also measured the air pressure with a handmade barometer that a parent had helped one group construct and recorded visible cloud formations.

After two months, it was time to analyze the data and write the first report for the class weather book. The students discussed their ideas and raised the following questions for further study: Is the temperature getting lower? What is the relationship between the direction of the wind and the weather the following day? What happens when the air pressure goes down or up? Was it colder when it was cloudy?

One group created a bar graph that showed the total number of sunny, cloudy, and rainy days. Another group made a graph that showed the daily temperature fluctuations and demonstrated that the weather was definitely getting colder. Still another team made an interesting table that illustrated that when the air pressure dropped, the weather usually seemed to get worse.

Midyear, Mr. Shahan was satisfied that the students understood the use of charts and graphs, and he introduced a simple computer program that allowed the students to record their data more easily. The class operated the weather station all year and analyzed the data approximately every two months. At the end of the school year, the class donated its weather book to the school library to be used as a reference by other students.

Through this extended exercise, the students learned how to ask questions, create tools to gather data, and collect and organize data. Specifically, they learned how to describe daily weather changes in terms of temperature, wind speed and direction, precipitation, and humidity.

Assessment Strategies
• Discuss with the class the learning objectives for this unit. Develop a rubric for group work and written reports.
• Students can keep a weather record book in which they record notes, observations, and data. Periodically throughout the unit, these books can be reviewed and graded by the teacher, and used to both assess what skills or concepts the students understand and identify the skill areas that need further instruction. Personalized notes to students in their books can individualize instruction by suggesting particular activities or resources that will further the students’ learning.
• Students can measure the effectiveness and accuracy of their homemade instruments by comparing the data collected with them to data measured using commercial instruments.

Science Learning Standards
6. Explain how air temperature, moisture, wind speed and direction, and precipitation make up the weather in a particular place and time.
7. Distinguish among the various forms of precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, and hail), making connections to the weather in a particular place and time.
8. Describe how global patterns such as the jet stream and water currents influence local weather in measurable terms such as temperature, wind direction and speed, and precipitation.
9. Differentiate between weather and climate.

Technology/Engineering Learning Standards
1.1 Identify materials used to accomplish a design task based on a specific property, i.e., weight, strength, hardness, and flexibility.
1.2 Identify and explain the appropriate materials and tools (e.g., hammer, screwdriver, pliers, tape measure, screws, nails, and other mechanical fasteners) to construct a given prototype safely.
2.1 Identify relevant design features (e.g., size, shape, weight) for building a prototype of a solution to a given problem.

Earth and Space Science Learning Standards for a Full First-Year Course in Grade 9 or 10

1. Matter and Energy in the Earth System
Broad Concept: The earth has internal and external sources of energy. The sun is the major external source of energy while the primary sources of internal energy are generated through radioactive decay and gravitational attraction from the earth's original formation.
1.1 Identify the earth’s principal sources of internal and external energy, e.g., radioactive decay, gravity, solar energy.

Broad Concept: Two fundamental energy concepts included in the earth system are gravity and electromagnetism.
1.2 Describe the components of the electromagnetic spectrum and give examples of its impact on our lives.
1.3 Describe the characteristics of waves (wavelength, frequency, velocity, amplitude).
1.4 Describe the nature of the continuous emission and absorption spectrum that indicates the composition of stars.

Broad Concept: Global atmospheric processes are driven by energy from the sun, unequal heating between the equator and poles, the earth’s rotation and revolution, and the influence of land and water. Human affairs can dramatically influence and be influenced by atmospheric phenomena.
1.5 Explain how the transfer of energy through radiation, conduction, and convection contributes to global atmospheric processes, e.g., storms, winds. *
1.6 Explain how the layers of the atmosphere affect the dispersal of incoming radiation through reflection, absorption, and reradiation.
1.7 Provide examples of how the unequal heating of the earth and the Coriolis Effect influence global circulation patterns, and show their impact on Massachusetts weather and climate, e.g., convection cells, trade winds, westerlies, polar easterlies, land/sea breezes, mountain/valley breezes.
1.8 Explain how the revolution of the earth and the inclination of the axis of the earth cause the earth’s seasonal variations (equinoxes and solstices). *
1.9 Describe how the inclination of the incoming solar radiation can impact the amount of energy received by a given surface area.
1.10 Describe the various conditions associated with frontal boundaries and cyclonic storms (e.g., thunderstorms, winter storms [nor’easters], hurricanes, and tornadoes) and their impact on human affairs, including storm preparations.

Broad Concept: Oceans redistribute matter and energy around the earth, through surface and deepwater currents, tides, waves, and interaction with other earth spheres.
1.11 Explain the dynamics of oceanic currents, including upwelling, density, and deep water currents, the local Labrador Current and the Gulf Stream, and their relationship to global circulation within the marine environment and climate. *
1.12 Describe the effects of longshore currents, storms, and artificial structures (e.g., jetties, sea walls) on coastal erosion in Massachusetts.
1.13 Explain what causes the tides and describe how they affect the coastal environment.

Broad Concept: Scientists use various instruments and methods to investigate the earth as a system.
1.14 Explain how scientists study the earth system through the use of a combination of ground-based observations, satellite observations, and computer models of the earth system, and why it is necessary to use all of these tools together.

Boldface type indicates core standards for full-year courses. An asterisk (*) indicates core standards for integrated courses.

2. The Earth’s Sources of Energy
Broad Concept: Numerous earth resources are used to sustain human affairs. The abundance and accessibility of these resources can influence their use.
2.1 Recognize, describe, and differentiate between renewable (e.g., solar, wind, water, biomass) and nonrenewable (e.g., fossil fuels, nuclear [Ura-235]) sources of energy.
2.2 Explain the advantage and limitations of renewable sources of energy.
2.3 Explain the advantage and limitations of nonrenewable sources of energy.
2.4 Describe ways in which people have tried to control the use of renewable and nonrenewable sources of energy, e.g., scientific advances, prices.
2.5 Describe the effects on the environment of using both renewable and nonrenewable sources of energy.
2.6 Describe ways in which scientists are addressing effects on the environment of using both renewable and nonrenewable sources of energy, e.g., creation of new technologies.

3. Earth Processes and Cycles
Broad Concept: Interactions among the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere have resulted in ongoing evolution of the earth system over geologic time.
3.1 Explain that weather is the most significant source of erosion and how both physical and chemical weathering lead to the formation of sediments and soils, affect the shape of rocks, and create specific landscapes depending on what weathering process is dominant under a specific climate.
3.2 Describe how glaciers, gravity, wind, temperature changes, waves, and rivers cause weathering and erosion. Give examples of how the effects of these processes can be seen in our local environment. *
3.3 Explain the nitrogen and carbon cycles and their roles in the improvement of soils for agriculture.
3.4 Describe the evolution of the atmosphere.
3.5 Describe how the oceans store carbon dioxide as dissolved HCO3 and CaCO3 precipitate.

Broad Concept: Water is continually being recycled by the hydrologic cycle through the watersheds, oceans, and the atmosphere by processes such as evaporation, condensation, precipitation, runoff, and infiltration. This life-giving cycle is continually and increasingly impacted by human affairs.
3.6 Explain how water flows into and through a watershed, e.g., aquifers, wells, porosity, permeability, water table, capillary water, runoff. *
3.7 Compare and contrast the processes of the hydrologic cycle including evaporation, condensation, precipitation, surface runoff and groundwater percolation, infiltration, and transpiration.

Broad Concept: Rocks and minerals are continually being modified within the rock cycle.
3.8 Describe the rock cycle, and the processes that are responsible for the formation of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Compare the physical properties of these rock types. *
3.9 Compare the physical properties and the mineral combinations found in rocks.
3.10 Explain how the composition and arrangement of atoms determine a mineral’s physical and chemical characteristics.

Broad Concept: Geologic time can be determined by analyzing rocks and fossils.
3.11 Describe the absolute and relative dating methods used to measure geologic time, e.g., index fossils, radioactive dating, law of superposition, and cross-cutting relationships. *
3.12 Describe the evolution of the solid earth in terms of the major geologic eras.

Boldface type indicates core standards for full-year courses. An asterisk (*) indicates core standards for integrated courses.
Broad Concept: The earth is a system of interacting spherical layers with each layer having distinct characteristic compositions, physical properties, and processes.
3.13 Explain how seismic data is used to reveal the interior structure of the layered earth.
3.14 Explain how seismic data is used to locate an earthquake epicenter.
3.15 Recognize the magnitude values of earthquakes as measured by the Richter Scale and give examples of relative damage that would be incurred at each magnitude.
3.16 Explain how the magnetic field of the earth is produced.
3.17 Explain how the Van Allen Belts protect the biosphere
3.18 Explain how paleomagnetic patterns, preserved in rocks, provide evidence of the earth’s magnetic field over geologic time.

Broad Concept: Plate tectonics operating over geologic time have altered the features of land, sea, and mountains by both constructive and destructive processes.
3.19 Trace the development of a lithospheric plate from its growing margin at a divergent boundary (mid-ocean ridge) to its destructive margin at a convergent boundary (subduction zone). Explain the relationship between convection currents and the motion of the lithospheric plates. *
3.20 Relate earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain building, and tectonic uplift to plate movements.
3.21 Relate the effects of sudden seafloor movements to the generation of tsunamis.
3.22 Provide examples of how societies have been affected by tectonic activity (e.g., hazards from eruptions and earthquakes, bedrock type and soil conditions, building designs).

4. The Origin and Evolution of the Universe
Broad Concept: The origin of the universe, between 10 and 20 billion years ago, remains one of the greatest questions in science.
4.1 Explain the Big Bang Theory and discuss the evidence that supports it (background radiation, and Relativistic Doppler effect ~ red shift).
4.2 Define the unit of distance called a light year.

Broad Concept: Gravity influences the formation and life cycles of galaxies, including our own Milky Way Galaxy, stars, planetary systems, and residual material left from the creation of the solar system. These objects move in regular patterns under the influence of gravity.
4.3 Use the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram to explain the life histories of stars.
4.4 Compare and contrast the final three outcomes of stellar evolution based on mass (black hole, neutron star, white dwarf).

Broad Concept: Our solar system is composed of a star, planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and residual material left from the evolution of the solar system over time.
4.5 Compare and contrast the motions of rotation and revolution of orbiting bodies, e.g., day, year, solar/lunar eclipses. Describe the influence of gravity and inertia on these motions.
4.6 Explain Kepler’s Laws of Motion.
4.7 Compare and contrast the various instrumentation used to study deep space and the solar system, e.g., refracting telescope, reflecting telescope, radio telescope, spectrophotometer.
4.8 Explain how the sun, earth, and solar system formed from a nebula of dust and gas in a spiral arm of the Milky Way Galaxy about 4.6 billion years ago. *

Boldface type indicates core standards for full-year courses. An asterisk (*) indicates core standards for integrated courses.

Strand 2: Life Science (Biology)

The life sciences investigate the diversity, complexity, and interconnectedness of life on earth. Students are naturally drawn to examine living things, and as they progress through the grade levels, they become capable of understanding the theories and models that scientists use to explain observations of nature. In this respect, a PreK-12 life science curriculum mirrors the way in which the science of biology has evolved from observation to classification to theory. By high school, students learn the importance of Darwin’s theory of evolution as a framework for explaining continuity, diversity, and change over time. Students emerge from an education in the life sciences recognizing that order in natural systems arises in accord with rules that seem to govern the physical world, and can be modeled and predicted through the use of mathematics.

As Piaget noted, young children tend to describe anything that moves as alive. For purposes of working with young children, who do not yet understand the continuity of life (e.g., from seed to seedling to tree to log), living can be defined as anything that is alive or has ever been alive (e.g., muskrat, flower, roadkill, log) and nonliving can be defined as anything that is not now and has never been alive (e.g., rock, mountain, glass, wristwatch). Over time, students refine their intuitive understanding. They begin to include in their definition of living such behaviors as eating, growing, and reproducing. Young children learn to use their senses to observe and then describe the natural world. Noticing differences and similarities and grouping organisms based on some common features is fundamental to the life science curriculum at this grade span. For a more in-depth discussion of this issue, please refer to the National Science Education Standards under Content Standard C: Developing Student Understanding (www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses/html/6c.html).

As children move through the elementary grades, they expand the range of observations they make of the living world. In particular, children record details of the life cycles of plants and animals, and explore how organisms are adapted to their habitat. In these grades, children move beyond using their senses to gather information. They begin to use measuring devices to gather quantitative data that they record, examine, interpret, and communicate. Children are introduced to the power of empirical evidence as they design ways of exploring questions that arise from their observations. Learning standards in PreK-2 fall under the topics of Characteristics of Living Things, Life Cycles, Evolution and Biodiversity, Heredity, and Living Things and Their Environment. The standards for grades 3-5 fall under the topics of Characteristics of Plants and Animals, Plant Structures and Functions, Life Cycles, Heredity, Adaptations of Living Things, and Energy and Living Things.

As students enter the middle school grades, the emphasis changes from observation and description of individual organisms to the development of a more connected view of biological systems. Middle school students begin to study biology at the microscopic level without delving into the biochemistry of cells. They learn that organisms are composed of cells and that some organisms are unicellular and must therefore carry out all of the necessary processes for life within that single cell. Other organisms, including human beings, are multicellular, with cells working together. Students should observe that cells of multicellular organisms can be physically very different from each other and relate that fact to the specific role that each cell has in the organisms (specialization). For example, cells of the eye or the skin or the tongue look different and do different things. Middle school students develop the understanding that the human body has organs, each of which has a specific function of its own, and that these organs together create systems that interact with each other to maintain life. As is outlined in the National Science Education Standards, students should be exposed in a general way to the systems of the human body, but are not expected to develop a detailed understanding at this grade level. Middle school students also examine the hierarchical organization of multicellular organisms and the roles and relationships that organisms occupy in an ecosystem.

At the macroscopic level, students focus on the interactions that occur within ecosystems. They explore the interdependence of living things, specifically the dependence of life on photosynthetic organisms such as plants, which in turn depend upon the sun as their source of energy. Students use mathematics to calculate rates of growth, derive averages and ranges, and represent data graphically to describe and interpret ecological concepts. The standards for grades 6-8 fall under the topics of Classification of Organisms, Structure and Function of Cells, Systems in Living Things, Reproduction and Heredity, Evolution and Biodiversity, Living Things and Their Environment, Energy and Living Things, and Changes in Ecosystems Over Time.

At the high school level, students study the molecular basis of life by looking at the processes occurring in cells. In particular, these students learn that the DNA molecule dictates all of our physical traits and that we inherit our parents’ DNA and therefore their physical traits. They learn that genetic variation is inherited and that the unit of inheritance is the gene. It is the inherited traits that provide the variation on which natural and manipulated selection act. It is changes in the DNA over time (mutations) that lead to diversity and the appearance of new traits that can give an organism a selective advantage, allowing it to become more competitive in a given environment, survive better, or adapt to changes in the environment (basis of natural selection).

The theory of organic evolution is fundamental to understanding modern biology. It provides a framework for explaining why there are so many different kinds of organisms on earth; why organisms of distantly related species share biochemical, anatomical, and functional characteristics; why species become extinct; and how different kinds of organisms are related to one another.

Life Science (Biology)

Please note: The technology/engineering standards for grades PreK-5 are on page 55.

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences Suggested Extensions to Learning in Technology/Engineering
Grades PreK-2 Life Science
Characteristics of Living Things
1. Recognize that animals (including humans) and plants are living things that grow, reproduce, and need food, air, and water. • Draw and record the growth of a plant grown from seeds with different light exposures (vary the duration and intensity of light exposure).
• Design and construct a habitat for a living organism that meets its needs for food, air and water. (T/E 1.2, 1.2, 2.3) 2. Differentiate between living and nonliving things. Group both living and nonliving things according to the characteristics that they share. • Compare and contrast groups of animals (e.g., insects, birds, fish, or mammals) and look at how animals in these groups are more similar to one another than to animals in other groups.
Life Cycles
3. Recognize that plants and animals have life cycles, and that life cycles vary for different living things.
• Using either live organisms or pictures/models, observe the changes in form during the life cycle of a butterfly or frog.
• Discuss the life cycle of a tree. • Design and build a habitat for a living organism that can be modified to meet the changing needs of the organism during its life cycle. (T/E 1.1, 1.2) Heredity
4. Describe ways in which many plants and animals closely resemble their parents in observed appearance. • Look at and discuss pictures of animals from the same species. Observe and discuss how they are alike and how they are different.
Evolution and Biodiversity
5. Recognize that fossils provide us with information about living things that inhabited the earth years ago. • Look at a variety of fossils or pictures of fossils, including plants, fish, and extinct species. Guess what living organisms they might be related to. • Make a fossil print of plant leaves using clay or putty. (T/E 1.1, 1.2)
Living Things and Their Environment 6. Recognize that people and other animals interact with the environment through their senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. • Observe small animals in the classroom while they find food, water, shelter, etc.
• Talk about how people use their senses every day. • Design and build an ant farm. Observe how ants use their senses and how they communicate to each other the location of a food source. (T/E 1.1, 1.2, 1.3)

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences Suggested Extensions to Learning in Technology/Engineering
Grades PreK-2 Life Science
Living Things and Their Environment (cont.) 7. Recognize changes in appearance that animals and plants go through as the seasons change.
• Observe and record changes in plants (e.g., trees, flowers, grass) on the playground and around the school during fall, winter, and spring.
• Visit a maple syrup manufacturing facility. Discuss the sap-to-maple syrup process and the seasonal life cycle of a tree. (T/E 1.1, 1.2)
8. Identify the ways in which an organism’s habitat provides for its basic needs (plants require air, water, nutrients, and light; animals require food, water, air, and shelter). • Create a garden habitat for birds and butterflies. Research and plant appropriate flowers. • Using simple tools and materials, have students draw pictures of their houses and an animal’s habitat. Discuss differences and similarities. (T/E 1.3)

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences Suggested Extensions to Learning in Technology/Engineering
Grades 3-5 Life ScienceCharacteristics of Plants and Animals 1. Classify plants and animals according to the physical characteristics that they share. • Sort plant and animal pictures based on physical characteristics.
• Use a dichotomous key to identify plants. • Create a simple chart to classify plants and animals that are common to the school’s geographical area. (T/E 2.2)
Plant Structures and Functions 2. Identify the structures in plants (leaves, roots, flowers, stem, bark, wood) that are responsible for food production, support, water transport, reproduction, growth, and protection. • Observe plant/pollinator interaction and seed dispersal methods.
• Study maple trees and go maple sugaring. Identify the structures in the maple tree and their functions. • Collect plants. Make a detailed drawing of a plant. Identify and label its major structures, i.e., leaves, flowers, stems, roots, seeds. Describe the function of each structure. (T/E 2.2, 2.3)

3. Recognize that plants and animals go through predictable life cycles that include birth, growth, development, reproduction, and death. • Grow plants from seed. Document the complete life cycle of the plant. Emphasize emergence of structures and the functions of these structures. Record changes in height over time. Graph the data. • Design and construct a habitat for a small animal (e.g., insect, butterfly, frog) that has adequate space, and contains the necessities for survival. The habitat should allow for observation of the animal as it goes through the stages of its life cycle. (T/E 1.1, 1.2, 2.1-2.3)
4. Describe the major stages that characterize the life cycle of the frog and butterfly as they go through metamorphosis.
• Using either live organisms or pictures/ models, observe the changes in form during the life cycle of a butterfly or frog.
5. Differentiate between observed characteristics of plants and animals that are fully inherited (e.g., color of flower, shape of leaves, color of eyes, number of appendages) and characteristics that are affected by the climate or environment (e.g., browning of leaves due to too much sun, language spoken). • Make frequency tables of the number of students with certain inherited physical traits, e.g., eye color, hair color, earlobe free or attached.

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences Suggested Extensions to Learning in Technology/Engineering
Grades 3-5 Life Science
Adaptations of Living Things 6. Give examples of how inherited characteristics may change over time as adaptations to changes in the environment that enable organisms to survive, e.g., shape of beak or feet, placement of eyes on head, length of neck, shape of teeth, color.
• Compare and contrast the physical characteristics of plants or animals from widely different environments (desert vs. tropical plants, aquatic vs. terrestrial animals). Explore how each is adapted to its habitat.
• Discuss how engineers design things by using their knowledge of the way that animals move, e.g., birds and wings influence airplane design, tails and fins of aquatic animals influence boat design. (T/E 2.4)
7. Give examples of how changes in the environment (drought, cold) have caused some plants and animals to die or move to new locations (migration). • Investigate how invasive species out-compete native plants, e.g., phragmites and purple loosestrife. Discuss how some native plants die as a result.

8. Describe how organisms meet some of their needs in an environment by using behaviors (patterns of activities) in response to information (stimuli) received from the environment. Recognize that some animal behaviors are instinctive (e.g., turtles burying their eggs), and others are learned (e.g., humans building fires for warmth, chimpanzees learning how to use tools). • Discuss how newly born sea turtles find their way to the ocean.
• Discuss how pets are trained to learn new tricks.
• Discuss how migrating birds navigate.
• Discuss the actions that coastal species take to adjust to the changing level of the tide.
• Observe an earthworm placed on top of soil in a container that is exposed to light. Discuss how its ability to sense light helps it survive (by burrowing) and how its structure allows it to burrow through soil.
9. Recognize plant behaviors, such as the way seedlings’ stems grow toward light and their roots grow downward in response to gravity. Recognize that many plants and animals can survive harsh environments because of seasonal behaviors, e.g., in winter, some trees shed leaves, some animals hibernate, and other animals migrate. • Set a germinating bean in a glass filled with water next to an asymmetric source of light. Allow the root and stem to grow a few inches. Rotate the bean so that the roots are now touching the water at an angle and the stem is away from the light source. Observe how the root system and stem respond to this change by changing their direction of growth.

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences Suggested Extensions to Learning in Technology/Engineering
Grades 3-5 Life Science
Adaptations of Living Things (cont.) 10. Give examples of how organisms can cause changes in their environment to ensure survival. Explain how some of these changes may affect the ecosystem.
• Discuss the importance of wetlands to human survival.
• Investigate how an invasive species changes an ecosystem.
• Research local projects where humans are changing the environment to ensure a species’ survival. • Brainstorm and sketch things in the home that are designed to help humans survive, e.g., heater for warmth, stove to cook. (T/E 2.1, 2.2)
Energy and Living Things
11. Describe how energy derived from the sun is used by plants to produce sugars (photosynthesis) and is transferred within a food chain from producers (plants) to consumers to decomposers. • Make a food chain. Begin with the sun as the source of energy and end with decomposers. Create links that show the relationship of plants and animals in the chain. Show the direction of the flow of energy. Discuss results if various links in the chain are broken.
• Design and build a compost bin. Use a thermometer to measure the temperature rise during composting. Discuss where heat (energy) comes from (decomposers metabolize energy stored by producers and consumers). (T/E 1.2)

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences
Grades 6-8 Life Science
Classification of Organisms
1. Classify organisms into the currently recognized kingdoms according to characteristics that they share. Be familiar with organisms from each kingdom.
Structure and Function of Cells 2. Recognize that all organisms are composed of cells, and that many organisms are single-celled (unicellular), e.g., bacteria, yeast. In these single-celled organisms, one cell must carry out all of the basic functions of life. • Observe, describe, record, and compare a variety of unicellular organisms found in aquatic ecosystems.
3. Compare and contrast plant and animal cells, including major organelles (cell membrane, cell wall, nucleus, cytoplasm, chloroplasts, mitochondria, vacuoles). • Observe a range of plant and animal cells to identify the cell wall, cell membrane, chloroplasts, vacuoles, nucleus, and cytoplasm when present.
4. Recognize that within cells, many of the basic functions of organisms (e.g., extracting energy from food and getting rid of waste) are carried out. The way in which cells function is similar in all living organisms.

Systems in Living Things
5. Describe the hierarchical organization of multicellular organisms from cells to tissues to organs to systems to organisms.
6. Identify the general functions of the major systems of the human body (digestion, respiration, reproduction, circulation, excretion, protection from disease, and movement, control, and coordination) and describe ways that these systems interact with each other.
Reproduction and Heredity
7. Recognize that every organism requires a set of instructions that specifies its traits. These instructions are stored in the organism’s chromosomes. Heredity is the passage of these instructions from one generation to another.
8. Recognize that hereditary information is contained in genes located in the chromosomes of each cell. A human cell contains about 30,000 different genes on 23 different chromosomes.
9. Compare sexual reproduction (offspring inherit half of their genes from each parent) with asexual reproduction (offspring is an identical copy of the parent’s cell).
Evolution and Biodiversity
10. Give examples of ways in which genetic variation and environmental factors are causes of evolution and the diversity of organisms.

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences
Grades 6-8 Life Science
Evolution and Biodiversity (cont.)
11. Recognize that evidence drawn from geology, fossils, and comparative anatomy provide the basis of the theory of evolution.
• Is the pterodactyl a flying reptile or the ancestor of birds? Discuss both possibilities based on the structural characteristics shown in pterodactyl fossils and those of modern birds and reptiles.
12. Relate the extinction of species to a mismatch of adaptation and the environment.
• Relate how numerous species could not adapt to habitat destruction and overkilling by humans, e.g., woolly mammoth, passenger pigeon, great auk.
Living Things and Their Environment
13. Give examples of ways in which organisms interact and have different functions within an ecosystem that enable the ecosystem to survive. • Study several symbiotic relationships such as oxpecker (bird) with rhinoceros (mammal). Identify specific benefits received by one or both partners. Energy and Living Things
14. Explain the roles and relationships among producers, consumers, and decomposers in the process of energy transfer in a food web.
• Distribute pictures of various producers, consumers, and decomposers to groups of students. Have each group organize the pictures according to the relationships among the pictured species and write a paragraph that explains the roles and relationships. 15. Explain how dead plants and animals are broken down by other living organisms and how this process contributes to the system as a whole. • Observe decomposer organisms in a compost heap on the school grounds, a compost column in a plastic bottle, or a worm bin. Use compost for starting seeds in the classroom or in a schoolyard garden.
16. Recognize that producers (plants that contain chlorophyll) use the energy from sunlight to make sugars from carbon dioxide and water through a process called photosynthesis. This food can be used immediately, stored for later use, or used by other organisms. • Test for sugars and starch in plant leaves.
Changes in Ecosystems Over Time
17. Identify ways in which ecosystems have changed throughout geologic time in response to physical conditions, interactions among organisms, and the actions of humans. Describe how changes may be catastrophes such as volcanic eruptions or ice storms.
• Study changes in an area of the schoolyard or a local ecosystem over an extended period. Students might even compare their observations to those made by students in previous years. 18. Recognize that biological evolution accounts for the diversity of species developed through gradual processes over many generations.

WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE IN THE CLASSROOM

Organisms in Their Environments
Adapted from a submission by Ellie Horowitz, Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife

Life Science Grades 3-5 (this activity can be adapted for other grade levels)

Every year, third-grade teacher Ms. Trestin does a unit on living things called “Life in the Soil.” On a trip to a wooded area or in the schoolyard, students look for living and nonliving things. Students often discover plants and animals, including insects, bugs, and other creatures living in and around leaf litter, rotting logs, or even behind plastic or wood in paved areas. These microhabitats and their residents can be a source of many questions and investigations. Ms. Trestin asks the students to identify, classify, catalog, and place in a food web the living organisms that they find. As students observe these creatures, the teacher asks them, “What does it look like, and what is it doing?” The students can develop field guides to the creatures of the microhabitats.

Then Ms. Trestin extends this unit by examining life in fresh water. Students visit a pond or stream, wade into the shallow water, and slide a dip net along the bottom. The creatures they catch are placed carefully in small containers and observed with a hand lens. The students compare the similarities and differences among the creatures found in each habitat.

As an extension to the study of plants and animals, students at any grade level can participate in Biodiversity Days, which offers the community an opportunity to see how many species they can find in their area. Students, teachers, and community members can investigate their schoolyard or recreation area, or join a townwide effort. Students make lists of the common plants and animals, and then look closely to find ones that are different. Students can bring field guides or lists provided for the Biodiversity Days event. A group of students may want to compile a list of everything they find, or they may want to focus on a single group like birds, reptiles, amphibians, or animals that live in or around vernal pools. The class members may want to combine their lists into a master list and pass it on as a reference for future observations. All of the information collected can be combined to create a school or townwide electronic field guide using digital cameras, a scanner, and computer software. Through the biodiversity event, this data can be submitted and included in a statewide database. For more information about Biodiversity Days in Massachusetts, visit www.state.ma.us/envir/biodays.htm. For general information about biodiversity, visit www.state.ma.us/envir/biodiversity.htm.

Assessment Strategies
• Clearly state your expectations for the students’ work. Outline the expectations for how the field guide data should be organized and recorded. It is helpful to have a sample of the level of work expected, such as a high quality field guide developed by previous students.
• Develop a rubric that assesses how accurately the student identifies, classifies, catalogs, and places the organisms in a food web.
• As a culminating activity, invite parents and friends to school and ask students to present their findings. The teacher may wish to ask a community member to help evaluate the students’ presentations.

Science Learning Standards
1. Classify plants and animals according to the physical characteristics that they share.
3. Recognize that plants and animals go through predictable life cycles that include birth, growth, development, reproduction, and death.

Biology Learning Standards for a Full First-Year Course in Grade 9 or 10

1. The Chemistry of Life
Broad Concept: Living things are made of atoms bonded together to form organic molecules.
1.1 Explain the significance of carbon in organic molecules.
1.2 Recognize the six most common elements in organic molecules (C, H, N, O, P, S).
1.3 Describe the composition and functions of the four major categories of organic molecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids). *
1.4 Describe how dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis relate to organic molecules.
1.5 Explain the role of enzymes in biochemical reactions.

2. Structure and Function of Cells
Broad Concept: All living things are composed of cells. Life processes in a cell are based on molecular interactions.
2.1 Relate cell parts/organelles to their functions. *
2.2 Differentiate between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells, in terms of their general structures and degrees of complexity. *
2.3 Distinguish between plant and animal cells. *
2.4 Describe how cells function in a narrow range of physical conditions, such as temperature and pH, to perform life functions that help to maintain homeostasis.
2.5 Explain the role of cell membranes as a highly selective barrier (diffusion, osmosis, and active transport). *
2.6 Identify the reactants and products in the general reaction of photosynthesis. Describe the use of isotopes in this identification.
2.7 Provide evidence that the organic compounds produced by plants are the primary source of energy and nutrients for most living things. *
2.8 Identify how cellular respiration is important for the production of ATP.
2.9 Explain the interrelated nature of photosynthesis and cellular respiration. *
2.10 Describe and compare the processes of mitosis and meiosis, and their role in the cell cycle. *

3. Genetics
Broad Concept: Genes are a set of instructions encoded in the DNA sequence of each organism that specify the sequence of amino acids in proteins characteristic of that organism.
3.1 Describe the structure and function of DNA, and distinguish among replication, transcription, and translation. *
3.2 Describe the processes of replication, transcription, and translation and how they relate to each other in molecular biology.
3.3 Describe the general pathway by which ribosomes synthesize proteins by using tRNAs to translate genetic information encoded in mRNAs.
3.4 Explain how mutations in the DNA sequence of a gene may be silent or result in phenotypic change in an organism and in its offspring.
3.5 Differentiate between dominant, recessive, codominant, polygenic, and sex-linked traits.
3.6 State Mendel’s laws of segregation and independent assortment.
3.7 Use a Punnett Square to determine the genotype and phenotype of monohybrid crosses. *
3.8 Explain how zygotes are produced in the fertilization process.
3.9 Recognize that while viruses lack cellular structure, they have the genetic material to invade living cells.

Boldface type indicates core standards for full-year courses. An asterisk (*) indicates core standards for integrated courses.
4. Human Anatomy and Physiology
Broad Concept: There is a relationship between structure and function in organ systems of humans.
4.1 Explain how major organ systems in humans (e.g., kidney, muscle, lung) have functional units (e.g., nephron, sarcome, alveoli) with specific anatomy that perform the function of that organ system.
4.2 Describe how the function of individual systems within humans are integrated to maintain a homeostatic balance in the body.

5. Evolution and Biodiversity
Broad Concept: Evolution and biodiversity are the result of genetic changes that occur in constantly changing environments.
5.1 Explain how the fossil record, comparative anatomy, and other evidence support the theory of evolution.
5.2 Illustrate how genetic variation is preserved or eliminated from a population through Darwinian natural selection (evolution) resulting in biodiversity.
5.3 Describe how the taxonomic system classifies living things into domains (eubacteria, archaebacteria, and eukaryotes) and kingdoms (animals, plants, fungi, etc.). * [Note: there is an ongoing scientific debate about the number of kingdoms and which organisms should be included in each. The following websites provide more information: Brave New Biosphere whyfiles.org/022critters/phylogeny.html, and The Tree of Life Project Root Page phylogeny.arizona.edu/tree/life.html.]

6. Ecology
Broad Concept: Ecology is the interaction between living organisms and their environment.
6.1 Explain how biotic and abiotic factors cycle in an ecosystem (water, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen). *
6.2 Use a food web to identify and distinguish producers, consumers, and decomposers, and explain the transfer of energy through trophic levels. *
6.3 Identify the factors in an ecosystem that influence fluctuations in population size.
6.4 Analyze changes in an ecosystem resulting from natural causes, changes in climate, human activity, or introduction of non-native species.
6.5 Explain how symbiotic behavior produces interactions within ecosystems.

Boldface type indicates core standards for full-year courses. An asterisk (*) indicates core standards for integrated courses.

Strand 3: Physical Sciences (Chemistry and Physics)

The physical sciences (physics and chemistry) examine the physical world around us. Using the methods of the physical sciences, students learn about the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter and the relationships between matter and energy.

Students are best able to build understanding of the physical sciences through hands-on exploration of the physical world. This framework encourages repeated and increasingly sophisticated experiences that help students understand properties of matter, chemical reactions, forces and motion, and energy. The links between these concrete experiences and more abstract knowledge and representations are forged gradually. Over the course of their schooling, students develop more inclusive and generalizable explanations about physical and chemical interactions.

Tools play a key role in the study of the physical world, helping students to detect physical phenomena that are beyond the range of their senses. By using well-designed instruments and computer-based technologies, students can better explore physical phenomena in ways that support greater conceptual understanding.

The physical science learning standards for PreK-2 fall under the topics of Observable Properties of Objects, States of Matter, and Position and Motion of Objects. Young children’s curiosity is engaged when they observe physical processes and sort objects by different criteria. During these activities, children learn basic concepts about how things are alike or different. As they push, pull, and transform objects by acting upon them, children see the results of their actions and begin to understand how part of their world works. They continue to build understanding by telling stories about what they did and what they found out.

The standards for grades 3-5 fall under the topics of Properties of Objects and Materials, States of Matter, and Forms of Energy (including electrical, magnetic, sound, and light). Students’ growth in their understanding of ordinary things allows them to make the intellectual connections necessary for understanding how the physical world works. Students are able to design simple comparative tests, carry out the tests, collect and record data, analyze results, and communicate their findings to others.

The standards for grades 6-8 fall under the topics of Properties of Matter, Elements, Compounds and Mixtures, Motion of Objects, Forms of Energy, and Heat Energy. While students at the middle school level may be better able to manage and represent ideas through language and mathematics, they still need concrete, physical-world experiences to help them develop concepts associated with motion, mass, volume, and energy. As they learn to make accurate measurements using a variety of instruments, their experiments become more quantitative and their physical models more precise. Students are able to understand relationships and can graph one measurement in relation to another, such as temperature change over time. Students may collect data by using microcomputer- or calculator-based laboratories (MBL or CBL), and learn to make sense immediately of graphical and other abstract representations essential to scientific understanding.

The high school standards for physics include Motion, Forces, Energy, Waves, and Electromagnetism. At the end of their study based on these standards, students can understand the evidence that underlies more complex concepts of physics, including forces and vectors, and transformations of energy. Graphical representations and the gradual introduction of functions introduce students to well-defined laws and principles of physics.

The high school chemistry standards for a full-year study include Properties of Matter, Atomic Structure and Bonding, Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry, Solutions, Acids and Bases, and Equilibrium and Kinetics. Because chemistry is central to our understanding of many other sciences, chemistry instruction should include links to actual applications to enable students to relate chemistry to their everyday lives and current engineering/technology. At the end of their study, students are capable of using sophisticated models and rigorous mathematical computations to make formal statements of principles of chemistry and understand their implications. They are able to apply their understanding in another science course, in a higher level of science or engineering/technology learning, or in the experiences they encounter.

Physical Sciences (Chemistry and Physics)

Please note: The technology/engineering standards for grades PreK-5 are on page 55.

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences Suggested Extensions to Learning in Technology/Engineering
Grades PreK-2 Physical Sciences
Observable Properties of Objects 1. Sort objects by observable properties such as size, shape, color, weight, and texture. • Manipulate, observe, compare, describe, and group objects found in the classroom, on the playground, and at home.

• Predict from looking at the shape of a simple tool or object what things it might be used for, e.g., pliers, letter opener, paperweight. (T/E 1.2, 2.1) States of Matter
2. Identify objects and materials as solid, liquid, or gas. Recognize that solids have a definite shape and that liquids and gases take the shape of their container. • Using transparent containers of very different shapes (e.g., cylinder, cone, cube) pour water from one container into another. Observe and discuss the “changing shape” of the water.
• Ask students to bring in different types of containers from home. Discuss and demonstrate whether the containers are appropriate to hold solids and liquids, e.g., an unwaxed cardboard box will absorb water and eventually disintegrate while a glass bottle will not. (T/E 1.1, 1.2) Position and Motion of Objects 3. Describe the various ways that objects can move, such as in a straight line, zigzag, back-and-forth, round-and-round, fast, and slow. • Use a spinning toy (e.g., a top) and a rocking toy (e.g., a rocking horse) to explore round-and-round motion and back-and-forth motion. • Using construction paper and glue, design a three-dimensional object that will roll in a straight line and a three-dimensional object that will roll around in a circle. (T/E 1.3, 2.1)
4. Demonstrate that the way to change the motion of an object is to apply a force (give it a push or a pull). The greater the force, the greater the change in the motion of the object. • Observe objects as you push and pull them on a hard, smooth surface. Make predictions as to what direction they will move and how far they will go. Repeat using various surfaces, e.g., rough, soft, etc. •

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences Suggested Extensions to Learning in Technology/Engineering
Grades PreK-2 Physical Sciences
5. Recognize that under some conditions, objects can be balanced. • Try to make a long thin rectangular block of wood stand upright on each face. Note that it stands (balances) very easily on some faces, but not on all.
• Design a lever, putting unequal weights on the ends of the balance board. Observe. Now find ways to restore the balance by moving the fulcrum, keeping each weight in the same place. Discuss what happens. (T/E 2.1)

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences Suggested Extensions to Learning in Technology/Engineering
Grades 3-5 Physical Sciences
Properties of Objects and Materials
1. Differentiate between properties of objects (e.g., size, shape, weight) and properties of materials (e.g., color, texture, hardness). • Gather a variety of solid objects. Collect data on properties of these objects such as origin (manmade or natural), weight (heavy, medium, light), length, odor, color, hardness, and flexibility.
• Use a variety of objects. Identify at least the main material the object is made of, e.g., wood, metal, paper, pottery/ceramic, plastic, glass. Discuss the function of the object and its parts. Discuss how the properties of the materials used are suited to the function of the overall object or some part of it. • Observe several common objects, discuss the different materials that they are made of, and the reasons that those specific materials may have been used. (T/E 1.1)
• Given a variety of objects made of different materials, ask questions and make predictions about their hardness, flexibility, and strength. Test to see if your predictions were correct. (T/E 1.1)
States of Matter
2. Compare and contrast solids, liquids, and gases based on the basic properties of each of these states of matter. • Design several stations, each of which demonstrates a state of matter, e.g., water table, balloon and fan table, sand and block table, etc. • Design one container for each of the states of matter, taking into account what material properties are important, e.g., size, shape, flexibility. (T/E 1.1, 2.3)
3. Describe how water can be changed from one state to another by adding or taking away heat.
• Do simple investigations with evaporation, condensation, freezing, and melting. Confirm that water expands upon freezing. • Using given insulating materials, try to keep an ice cube from melting. (T/E 1.1)
Forms of Energy
4. Identify the basic forms of energy (light, sound, heat, electrical, and magnetic). Recognize that energy is the ability to cause motion or create change. • Play music through a speaker with and without a grill cover. Discuss the difference in sound. • Design and construct a candle wheel that demonstrates how heat can cause a propeller to spin (a very popular craft toy). (T/E 1.1, 1.2, 2.2, 2.3)
5. Give examples of how energy can be transferred from one form to another. • Rub two pieces of wood together (mechanical energy) and observe the change in temperature of the wood. • Design and build a simple roller coaster for a marble or toy car to demonstrate how energy changes from one form to another. (T/E 2.2, 2.3)

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences Suggested Extensions to Learning in Technology/Engineering
Grades 3-5 Physical Sciences
Electrical Energy
6. Recognize that electricity in circuits requires a complete loop through which an electrical current can pass, and that electricity can produce light, heat, and sound. • Using graphic symbols, draw and label a simple electric circuit. (T/E 2.2)
• Using batteries, bulbs, and wires, build a series circuit. (T/E 1.2, 2.2)
• Design and build a simple game using simple circuits. (T/E 1.2, 2.2)
7. Identify and classify objects and materials that conduct electricity and objects and materials that are insulators of electricity. • Provide a collection of materials that are good conductors and good insulators. Have students determine each material’s electrical conductivity by testing the materials with a simple battery/bulb circuit. • Select from a variety of materials (e.g., cloth, cardboard, Styrofoam, plastic, etc.) to design and construct a simple device (prototype) that could be used as an insulator. Do a simple test of its effectiveness. (T/E 1.1, 1.2, 2.2, 2.3)
8. Explain how electromagnets can be made, and give examples of how they can be used. • Design and construct a simple game or toy (prototype) that works because of electromagnets. (T/E 1.1, 1.2, 2.2, 2.3)
• Make an electromagnet with a six-volt battery, insulated wire, and a large nail. (T/E 1.2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3)
Magnetic Energy
9. Recognize that magnets have poles that repel and attract each other. • Balance ring magnets on a pencil. Note: The shape of a ring magnet obscures the locations of its poles.
• Provide sealed field detectors (iron filings confined between sheets of plastic or iron filings sealed in oil). Use to show and draw magnetic fields in two and three dimensions. • Design and build a magnetic device to sort steel from aluminum materials for recycling. (T/E 1.1)
Magnetic Energy (cont.)
10. Identify and classify objects and materials that a magnet will attract and objects and materials that a magnet will not attract. • Test a variety of materials with assorted magnets. Include samples of pure iron and magnetic steel. Include samples of non-magnetic metals. Mention the two other magnetic metals: pure cobalt and pure nickel. Test a U.S. five-cent coin. Is a U.S. nickel coin made of pure nickel? • Design and construct a device that utilizes magnets to lift a metal weight at least six inches off the ground. (T/E 1.1, 1.3, 2.3)
Sound Energy
11. Recognize that sound is produced by vibrating objects and requires a medium through which to travel. Relate the rate of vibration to the pitch of the sound. • Use tuning forks to demonstrate the relationship between vibration and sound.
• Design and construct a telephone (prototype) using a variety of materials, e.g., paper cups, string, tin cans, and wire. Determine which prototype works best. Discuss possible reasons. (T/E 1.1, 1.2, 2.2, 2.3)
Light Energy
12. Recognize that light travels in a straight line until it strikes an object or travels from one medium to another, and that light can be reflected, refracted, and absorbed. • Use a flashlight, mirrors, and water to demonstrate reflection and refraction. • Design and build a prototype to inhibit solar heating of a car, e.g., windshield reflector, window tinting. (T/E 1.2, 2.1, 2.3)
• Design and build a pinhole camera. Test the effects of light on light sensitive paper. (T/E 1.2, 2.3)
• Design and build a periscope from cardboard and mirrors. (T/E 1.1, 1.2, 2.3)

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences
Grades 6-8 Physical Sciences
Properties of Matter
1. Differentiate between weight and mass, recognizing that weight is the amount of gravitational pull on an object. • Explain how to determine the weight of a dense object in air and in water. Next carry out your plan. Explain how the results you obtain are related to the different definitions of mass and weight.
2. Differentiate between volume and mass. Define density.

3. Recognize that the measurement of volume and mass requires understanding of the sensitivity of measurement tools (e.g., rulers, graduated cylinders, balances) and knowledge and appropriate use of significant digits. • Calculate the volumes of regular objects from linear measurements. Measure the volumes of the same objects by displacement of water. Use the metric system. Discuss the accuracy limits of your procedures and how they explain any observed differences between your calculated volumes and your measured volumes.
• Use measurements of weight and volume to find out if several solid metal objects are made of the same metal or different metals. Explain why some of your conclusions may be more definite than others. Give reasons based on accuracy of measurements and on the physical properties of metals, where applicable.
4. Explain and give examples of how mass is conserved in a closed system. • Melt, dissolve, and precipitate various substances to observe examples of the conservation of mass.
• Carry out a chemical reaction. Determine the masses of all reactants and all products. Discuss whether results support the conservation of mass, taking into account the sensitivity and accuracy of measuring equipment used.
Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
5. Recognize that there are more than 100 elements that combine in a multitude of ways to produce compounds that make up all of the living and nonliving things that we encounter. • Demonstrate with atomic models (e.g., ball and stick) how atoms can combine in a large number of ways. Explain why the number of combinations is large, but still limited. Also use the models to demonstrate the conservation of mass in the chemical reactions you are modeling.
6. Differentiate between an atom (the smallest unit of an element that maintains the characteristics of that element) and a molecule (the smallest unit of a compound that maintains the characteristics of that compound). • Use atomic models (or Lego blocks, assigning colors to various atoms) to build molecules of water, sodium chloride, carbon dioxide, ammonia, etc.

Topic
Learning Standard Ideas for Developing Investigations and Learning Experiences
Grades 6-8 Physical Sciences
7. Give basic examples of elements and compounds. • Heat sugar in a crucible with an inverted funnel over it. Observe carbon residue and water vapor in the funnel as evidence of the breakdown of components. Continue heating the carbon residue to show that carbon residue does not decompose. Safety note: sugar melts at a very high temperature and can cause serious burns.
8. Differentiate between mixtures and pure substances.

9. Recognize that a substance (element or compound) has a melting point and a boiling point, both of which are independent of the amount of the sample.
10. Differentiate between physical changes and chemical changes. • Demonstrate with molecular ball-and-stick models the physical change that converts liquid water into ice. Also demonstrate with molecular ball-and-stick models the chemical change that converts hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen gas.
Motion of Objects
11. Explain and give examples of how the motion of an object can be described by its position, direction of motion, and speed.

12. Graph and interpret distance vs. time graphs for constant speed.

Forms of Energy 13. Differentiate between potential and kinetic energy. Identify situations where kinetic energy is transformed into potential energy and vice versa.
Heat Energy
14. Recognize that heat is a form of energy and that temperature change results from adding or taking away heat from a system.
15. Explain the effect of heat on particle motion through a description of what happens to particles during a change in phase.
16. Give examples of how heat moves in predictable ways, moving from warmer objects to cooler ones until they reach equilibrium. • Place a thermometer in a ball of clay and place this in an insulated cup filled with hot water. Record the temperature every minute. Then remove the thermometer and ball of clay and place them in an insulated cup of cold water that contains a second thermometer. Observe and record the changes in temperature on both thermometers. Explain the observations in terms of heat flow. Include direction of heat flow and why it stops.

Chemistry Learning Standards for a Full First-Year Course in Grade 10 or 11

1. Properties of Matter
Broad Concept: Physical and chemical properties can be used to classify and describe matter.
1.1 Identify and explain some of the physical properties that are used to classify matter, e.g., density, melting point, and boiling point. *
1.2 Explain the difference between mixtures and pure substances. *
1.3 Describe the four states of matter (solid, liquid, gas, plasma) in terms of energy, particle motion, and phase transitions. *
1.4 Distinguish between chemical and physical changes.

2. Atomic Structure
Broad Concept: An atom is a discrete unit. The atomic model can help us to understand the interaction of elements and compounds observed on a macroscopic scale.
2.1 Trace the development of atomic theory and the structure of the atom from the ancient Greeks to the present (Dalton, Thompson, Rutherford, Bohr, and modern theory).
2.2 Interpret Dalton’s atomic theory in terms of the Laws of Conservation of Mass, Constant Composition, and Multiple Proportions.
2.3 Identify the major components of the nuclear atom (protons, neutrons, and electrons) and explain how they interact. *
2.4 Understand that matter has properties of both particles and waves.
2.5 Using Bohr’s model of the atom interpret changes (emission/absorption) in electron energies in the hydrogen atom corresponding to emission transitions between quantum levels.
2.6 Describe the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of wavelength and energy; identify regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
2.7 Write the electron configurations for elements in the first three rows of the periodic table.
2.8 Describe alpha, beta, and gamma particles; discuss the properties of alpha, beta, and gamma radiation; and write balanced nuclear reactions.
2.9 Compare nuclear fission and nuclear fusion and mass defect. *
2.10 Describe the process of radioactive decay as the spontaneous breakdown of certain unstable elements (radioactive) into new elements (radioactive or not) through the spontaneous emission by the nucleus of alpha or beta particles. Explain the difference between stable and unstable isotopes.
2.11 Explain the concept of half-life of a radioactive element, e.g., explain why the half-life of C14 has made carbon dating a powerful tool in determining the age of very old objects.

3. Periodicity
Broad Concept: Periodicity of physical and chemical properties relates to atomic structure and led to the development of the periodic table. The periodic table displays the elements in order of increasing atomic number.
3.1 Explain the relationship of an element’s position on the periodic table to its atomic number and mass. *
3.2 Use the periodic table to identify metals, nonmetals, metalloids, families (groups), periods, valence electrons, and reactivity with other elements in the table.
3.3 Relate the position of an element on the periodic table to its electron configuration.
3.4 Identify trends on the periodic table (ionization energy, electronegativity, electron affinity, and relative size of atoms and ions).

Boldface type indicates core standards for full-year courses. An asterisk (*) indicates core standards for integrated courses.
4. Chemical Bonding
Broad Concept: Atoms form bonds by the interactions of their valence electrons.
4.1 Explain how atoms combine to form compounds through both ionic and covalent bonding.
4.2 Draw Lewis dot structures for simple molecules.
4.3 Relate electronegativity and ionization energy to the type of bonding an element is likely to undergo.
4.4 Predict the geometry of simple molecules and their polarity (valence shell electron pair repulsion).
4.5 Identify the types of intermolecular forces present based on molecular geometry and polarity.
4.6 Predict chemical formulas based on the number of valence electrons.
4.7 Name and write the chemical formulas for simple ionic and molecular compounds, including those that contain common polyatomic ions.

5. Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry
Broad Concept: The conservation of atoms in chemical reactions leads to the ability to calculate the mass of products and reactants.
5.1 Balance chemical equations by applying the law of conservation of mass. *
5.2 Recognize synthesis, decomposition, single displacement, double displacement, and neutralization reactions.
5.3 Understand the mole concept in terms of number of particles, mass, and gaseous volume.
5.4 Determine molar mass, percent compositions, empirical formulas, and molecular formulas.
5.5 Calculate mass-mass, mass-volume, volume-volume, and limiting reactant problems for chemical reactions.
5.6 Calculate percent yield in a chemical reaction.

6. Gases and Kinetic Molecular Theory
Broad Concept: The behavior of gases can be explained by the Kinetic Molecular Theory.
6.1 Using the kinetic molecular theory, explain the relationship between pressure and volume (Boyle’s law), volume and temperature (Charles’ law), and the number of particles in a gas sample (Avogadro’s hypothesis).
6.2 Explain the relationship between temperature and average kinetic energy.
6.3 Perform calculations using the ideal gas law.
6.4 Describe the conditions under which a real gas deviates from ideal behavior.
6.5 Interpret Dalton’s empirical Law of Partial Pressures and use it to calculate partial pressures and total pressures.
6.6 Use the combined gas law to determine changes in pressure, volume, or temperature.

7. Solutions
Broad Concept: Solids, liquids, and gases dissolve to form solutions.
7.1 Describe the process by which solutes dissolve in solvents. *
7.2 Identify and explain the factors that affect the rate of dissolving, i.e., temperature, concentration, and mixing. *
7.3 Describe the dynamic equilibrium that occurs in saturated solutions.
7.4 Calculate concentration in terms of molarity, molality, and percent by mass.
7.5 Use a solubility curve to determine saturation values at different temperatures.
7.6 Calculate the freezing point depression and boiling point elevation of a solution.
7.7 Write net ionic equations for precipitation reactions in aqueous solutions.

8. Acids and Bases
Broad Concept: Acids and bases are important in numerous chemical processes that occur around us, from industrial processes to biological ones, from the laboratory to the environment.
8.1 Define Arrhenius’ theory of acids and bases in terms of the presence of hydronium and hydroxide ions, and Bronsted’s theory of acids and bases in terms of proton donor and acceptor, and relate their concentrations to the pH scale. *
8.2 Compare and contrast the nature, behavior, concentration and strength of acids and bases.
a. Acid-base neutralization
b. Degree of dissociation or ionization
c. Electrical conductivity
8.3 Identify a buffer and explain how it works.

Boldface type indicates core standards for full-year courses. An asterisk (*) indicates core standards for integrated courses.
8.4 Explain how indicators are used in titrations and how they are selected.
8.5 Describe an acid-base titration. Identify when the equivalence point is reached and its significance.
8.6 Calculate the pH or pOH of aqueous solutions using the hydronium or hydroxide ion concentration.

9. Equilibrium and Kinetics
Broad Concept: Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic process that is significant in many systems (biological, ecological and geological). Chemical reactions occur at different rates.
9.1 Write the equilibrium expression and calculate the equilibrium constant for a reaction.
9.2 Predict the shift in equilibrium when the system is subjected to a stress (LeChatelier’s principle).
9.3 Identify the factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction (temperature, concentration) and the factors that can cause a shift in equilibrium (concentration, pressure, volume, temperature).
9.4 Explain rates of reaction in terms of collision frequency, energy of collisions, and orientation of colliding molecules.
9.5 Define the role of activation energy in a chemical reaction.

10. Thermochemistry (Enthalpy)
Broad Concept: The driving forces of chemical reactions are energy and entropy. This has important implications for many applications (synthesis of new compounds, meteorology, and industrial engineering).
10.1 Interpret the law of conservation of energy.
10.2 Explain the relationship between energy transfer and disorder in the universe.
10.3 Analyze the energy changes involved in physical and chemical processes using calorimetry.
10.4 Apply Hess’s law to determine the heat of reaction.

11. Oxidation-Reduction and Electrochemistry
Broad Concept: Oxidation-reduction reactions occur by electron transfer and constitute a major class of chemical reactions. Examples of redox reactions occur everywhere; their consequences are experienced daily.
11.1 Describe the chemical processes known as oxidation and reduction.
11.2 Assign oxidation numbers.
11.3 Balance oxidation-reduction equations by using half-reactions.
11.4 Identify the components, and describe the processes that occur in an electrochemical cell.
11.5 Explain how a typical battery, such as a lead storage battery or a dry cell, works.
11.6 Compare and contrast voltaic and electrolytic cells and their uses.
11.7 Calculate the net voltage of a cell given a table of standard reduction potentials.

Boldface type indicates core standards for full-year courses. An asterisk (*) indicates core standards for integrated courses.

Physics Learning Standards for a Full First-Year Course in Grade 9 or 10

1. Motion and Forces
Broad Concept: Newton’s laws of motion and gravitation describe and predict the motion of most objects.
1.1 Distinguish between vector quantities (velocity, acceleration, and force) and scalar quantities (speed and mass).
1.2 Illustrate how to represent vectors graphically and be able to add them graphically.
1.3 Distinguish between, and solve problems involving, velocity, speed, and constant acceleration.
1.4 Create and interpret graphs of motion (position vs. time, speed vs. time, velocity vs. time, constant acceleration vs. time).
1.5 Explain the relationship between mass and inertia. *
1.6 Interpret and apply Newton’s first law of motion. *
1.7 Interpret and apply Newton’s second law of motion to show how an object’s motion will change only when a net force is applied. *
1.8 Use a free body force diagram with only co-linear forces to show forces acting on an object, and determine the net force on it.
1.9 Qualitatively distinguish between static and kinetic friction, what they depend on and their effects on the motion of objects.
1.10 Interpret and apply Newton’s third law of motion.
1.11 Understand conceptually Newton’s law of universal gravitation. *
1.12 Identify appropriate standard international units of measurement for force, mass, distance, speed, acceleration, and time, and explain how they are measured.

2. Conservation of Energy and Momentum
Broad Concept: The laws of conservation of energy and momentum provide alternate approaches to predict and describe the movement of objects.
2.1 Interpret and provide examples that illustrate the law of conservation of energy. *
2.2 Provide examples of how energy can be transformed from kinetic to potential and vice versa.
2.3 Apply quantitatively the law of conservation of mechanical energy to simple systems.
2.4 Describe the relationship among energy, work, and power both conceptually and quantitatively.
2.5 Interpret the law of conservation of momentum and provide examples that illustrate it. Calculate the momentum of an object.
2.6 Identify appropriate standard international units of measurement for energy, work, power, and momentum.

3. Heat and Heat Transfer
Broad Concept: Heat is energy that is transferred between bodies that are at different temperatures by the processes of convection, conduction, and/or radiation.
3.1 Relate thermal energy to molecular motion. *
3.2 Differentiate between specific heat and heat capacity.
3.3 Explain the relationship among temperature change in a substance for a given amount of heat transferred, the amount (mass) of the substance, and the specific heat of the substance.
3.4 Recognize that matter exists in four phases, and explain what happens during a phase change.

4. Waves
Broad Concept: Waves carry energy from place to place without the transfer of matter.
4.1 Differentiate between wave motion (simple harmonic nonlinear motion) and the motion of objects (nonharmonic). *
4.2 Recognize the measurable properties of waves (e.g., velocity, frequency, wavelength) and explain the relationships among them. *
4.3 Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves.
4.4 Distinguish between mechanical and electromagnetic waves. *

Boldface type indicates core standards for full-year courses. An asterisk (*) indicates core standards for integrated courses.

4.5 Interpret and be able to apply the laws of reflection and refraction (qualitatively) to all waves.
4.6 Recognize the effects of polarization, wave interaction, and the Doppler effect.
4.7 Explain, graph, and interpret graphs of constructive and destructive interference of waves.
4.8 Explain the relationship between the speed of a wave (e.g., sound) and the medium it travels through.
4.9 Recognize the characteristics of a standing wave and explain the conditions under which two waves on a string or in a pipe can interfere to produce a standing wave.

5. Electromagnetism
Broad Concept: Stationary and moving charge particles result in the phenomenon known as electricity and magnetism.
5.1 Recognize the characteristics of static charge, and explain how a static charge is generated.
5.2 Interpret and apply Coulomb’s law.
5.3 Explain the difference in concept between electric forces and electric fields.
5.4 Develop a qualitative and quantitative understanding of current, voltage, resistance, and the connection between them.
5.5 Identify appropriate units of measurement for current, voltage, and resistance, and explain how they are measured.
5.6 Analyze circuits (find the current at any point and the potential difference between any two points in the circuit) using Kirchoff’s and Ohm’s laws.

6. Electromagnetic Radiation
Broad Concept: Oscillating electric or magnetic fields can generate electromagnetic waves over a wide spectrum of energies.
6.1 Describe the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of wavelength and energy, and be able to identify specific regions such as visible light. *
6.2 Explain how the various wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum have many useful applications such as radio, television, microwave appliances, and cellular telephones.
6.3 Calculate the frequency and energy of an electromagnetic wave from the wavelength.
6.4 Recognize and explain the ways in which the direction of visible light can be changed. Boldface type indicates core standards for full-year courses. An asterisk (*) indicates core standards for integrated courses.

Strand 4: Technology/Engineering

Science tries to understand the natural world. Based on the knowledge that scientists develop, the goal of engineering is to solve practical problems through the development or use of technologies. For example, the planning, designing, and construction of the Central Artery Tunnel project in Boston (commonly referred to as the “Big Dig”) is a complex and technologically challenging project that draws on knowledge of earth science, physics, and construction and transportation technologies.

Technology/engineering works in conjunction with science to expand our capacity to understand the world. For example, scientists and engineers apply scientific knowledge of light to develop lasers and fiber optic technologies and other technologies in medical imaging. They also apply this scientific knowledge to develop such modern communications technologies as telephones, fax machines, and electronic mail. The Relationship Among Science, Engineering, and Technology
Although the term technology is often used by itself to describe the educational application of computers in a classroom, instructional technology is a subset of the much broader field of technology. While important, computers and instructional tools that use computers are only a few of the many technological innovations in use today.

Technologies developed through engineering include the systems that provide our houses with water and heat; roads, bridges, tunnels, and the cars that we drive; airplanes and spacecraft; cellular phones, televisions, and computers; many of today’s children’s toys; and systems that create special effects in movies. Each of these came about as the result of recognizing a need or problem and creating a technological solution. Figure 1 on page 53 shows the steps of the engineering design process. Beginning in the early grades and continuing through high school, students carry out this design process in ever more sophisticated ways. As they gain more experience and knowledge, they are able to draw on other disciplines, especially mathematics and science, to understand and solve problems.

Students are experienced technology users before they enter school. Their natural curiosity about how things work is clear to any adult who has ever watched a child doggedly work to improve the design of a paper airplane, or to take apart a toy to explore its insides. They are also natural engineers and inventors, builders of sandcastles at the beach and forts under furniture. Most students in grades PreK-2 are fascinated with technology. While learning the safe use of tools and materials that underlie engineering solutions, they are encouraged to manipulate materials that enhance their three-dimensional visualization skills–an essential component of the ability to design. They identify and describe characteristics of natural and manmade materials and their possible uses and identify the use of basic tools and materials, e.g., glue, scissors, tape, ruler, paper, toothpicks, straws, and spools. In addition, students at this level learn to identify tools and simple machines used for a specific purpose (e.g., ramp, wheel, pulley, lever) and describe how human beings use parts of the body as tools.

Students in grades 3-5 learn how appropriate materials, tools, and machines extend our ability to solve problems and invent. They identify materials used to accomplish a design task based on a specific property and explain which materials and tools are appropriate to construct a given prototype. They achieve a higher level of engineering design skill by recognizing a need or problem, learn different ways that the problem can be represented, and work with a variety of materials and tools to create a product or system to address it.

In grades 6-8, students pursue engineering questions and technological solutions that emphasize research and problem solving. They identify and understand the five elements of a technology system (goal, inputs, processes, outputs, and feedback). They acquire basic skills in the safe use of hand tools, power tools, and machines. They explore engineering design; materials, tools, and machines; and communication, manufacturing, construction, transportation, and bioengineering technologies. Starting in these grades and extending through grade 10, the topics of power and energy are incorporated into the study of most areas of technology. Students integrate knowledge they acquired in their mathematics and science curricula to understand the links to engineering. They achieve a more advanced level of skill in engineering design by learning to conceptualize a problem, design prototypes in three dimensions, and use hand and power tools to construct their prototypes, test their prototypes, and make modifications as necessary. The culmination of the engineering design experience is the development and delivery of an engineering presentation.

Students in grades 9 and 10 learn to apply scientific and mathematical knowledge in a full-year, comprehensive technology/engineering course. The topics addressed include engineering design; construction technologies; power and energy technologies in fluid, thermal, and electrical systems; communication technologies; and manufacturing technologies. Students engage in experiences that enhance their skills in designing, building, and testing prototypes. The culmination of this level of design experience is also the development and delivery of an engineering presentation.

Technology/engineering curricula in grades 11 and 12 follow the approaches used for the previous two grades but expand in a variety of areas based on available school expertise and student interest. Students may explore advanced technology/engineering curricula such as automation and robotics, multimedia, architecture and planning, biotechnology, and computer information systems. They may continue building on their background in engineering design by working on inventions. Course offerings in the high school grades should engage students who are interested in:
• expanding their studies in the area of engineering and technology because they are interested in a college-level engineering program,
• pursuing career pathways in relevant technology fields, or
• learning about certain areas of technology/engineering to expand their general educationa background, but who will not necessarily follow a technical career.

All areas of study should be taught by teachers who are certified in that discipline. Because of the hands-on, active nature of the technology/engineering environment, it is strongly recommended that it be taught in the middle and high school by teachers who are certified in technology education, and who are very familiar with the safe use of tools and machines.

1. Identify the need or problem
2. Research the need or problem
• Examine current state of the issue and current solutions
• Explore other options via the internet, library, interviews, etc.
3. Develop possible solution(s)
• Brainstorm possible solutions
• Draw on mathematics and science
• Articulate the possible solutions in two and three dimensions
• Refine the possible solutions
4. Select the best possible solution(s)
• Determine which solution(s) best meet(s) the original requirements
5. Construct a prototype
• Model the selected solution(s) in two and three dimensions
6. Test and evaluate the solution(s)
• Does it work?
• Does it meet the original design constraints?
7. Communicate the solution(s)
• Make an engineering presentation that includes a discussion of how the solution(s) best meet(s) the needs of the initial problem, opportunity, or need
• Discuss societal impact and tradeoffs of the solution(s)
8. Redesign
• Overhaul the solution(s) based on information gathered during the tests and presentation

Technology/Engineering Learning Standards

Please note: Suggested extensions to learning in technology/engineering for grades PreK-5 are listed with the science learning standards. See pages 12-21 (earth and space science), 31-38 (life science), and 46-51 (physical sciences).

Grades PreK-2
1. Materials and Tools
Broad Concept: Materials both natural and human-made have specific characteristics that determine how they will be used.
1.1 Identify and describe characteristics of natural materials (e.g., wood, cotton, fur, wool) and human-made materials (e.g., plastic, Styrofoam).
1.2 Identify and explain some possible uses for natural materials (e.g., wood, cotton, fur, wool) and human-made materials (e.g., plastic, Styrofoam).
1.3 Identify and describe the safe and proper use of tools and materials (e.g., glue, scissors, tape, ruler, paper, toothpicks, straws, spools) to construct simple structures.

2. Engineering Design
Broad Concept: Engineering design requires creative thinking and consideration of a variety of ideas to solve practical problems.
2.1 Identify tools and simple machines used for a specific purpose, e.g., ramp, wheel, pulley, lever.
2.2 Describe how human beings use parts of the body as tools (e.g., teeth for cutting, hands for grasping and catching), and compare their use with the ways in which animals use those parts of their bodies.

Grades 3-5
1. Materials and Tools
Broad Concept: Appropriate materials, tools, and machines extend our ability to solve problems and invent.
1.3 Identify materials used to accomplish a design task based on a specific property, i.e., weight, strength, hardness, and flexibility.
1.4 Identify and explain the appropriate materials and tools (e.g., hammer, screwdriver, pliers, tape measure, screws, nails, and other mechanical fasteners) to construct a given prototype safely.
1.5 Identify and explain the difference between simple and complex machines, e.g., hand can opener that includes multiple gears, wheel, wedge gear, and lever.

2. Engineering Design
Broad Concept: Engineering design requires creative thinking and strategies to solve practical problems generated by needs and wants.
2.2 Identify a problem that reflects the need for shelter, storage, or convenience.
2.3 Describe different ways in which a problem can be represented, e.g., sketches, diagrams, graphic organizers, and lists.
2.4 Identify relevant design features (e.g., size, shape, weight) for building a prototype of a solution to a given problem.
2.5 Compare natural systems with mechanical systems that are designed to serve similar purposes, e.g., a bird’s wings as compared to an airplane’s wings.

Grades 6-8
Please note: For grades 6-high school, there are suggested learning activities after each set of learning standards. The number(s) in parentheses after each activity refer to the related technology/engineering learning standard(s).
1. Materials, Tools, and Machines
Broad Concept: Appropriate materials, tools, and machines enable us to solve problems, invent, and construct.
1.1 Given a design task, identify appropriate materials (e.g., wood, paper, plastic, aggregates, ceramics, metals, solvents, adhesives) based on specific properties and characteristics (e.g., weight, strength, hardness, and flexibility).
1.2 Identify and explain appropriate measuring tools, hand tools, and power tools used to hold, lift, carry, fasten, and separate, and explain their safe and proper use.
1.3 Identify and explain the safe and proper use of measuring tools, hand tools, and machines (e.g., band saw, drill press, sanders, hammer, screwdriver, pliers, tape measure, screws, nails, and other mechanical fasteners) needed to construct a prototype of an engineering design.

Suggested Learning Activities
• Conduct tests for weight, strength, hardness, and flexibility of various materials, e.g., wood, paper, plastic, ceramics, metals. (1.1)
• Design and build a catapult that will toss a marshmallow the farthest. (1.1, 1.2, 1.3)
• Use a variety of hand tools and machines to change materials into new forms through forming, separating, and combining processes, and processes that cause internal change to occur. (1.2)

2. Engineering Design
Broad Concept: Engineering design is an iterative process involving modeling and optimizing for developing technological solutions to problems within given constraints.
2.1 Identify and explain the steps of the eng